'Fair Value Accounting: Its Impacts on Financial Reporting and How It Can Be Enhanced to Provide More Clarity and Reliability of Information for Users of Financial Statements\r'

'International journal of rail air transmission line and Social comprehension Vol. 2 zero(prenominal) 20; noember 2011 picturesque honour account arguing: Its Impacts on pecuniary coverage and How It Can Be enhance to Provide More Clarity and Re fiscal obligation of selective randomness for Users of fiscal asseverations Ashford C. Chea School of billet, Kentucky Wesleyan College 4721 C all overt Avenue, Evansville IN 47714 the States Abstract The condition begins the w altogetherpaper with a brief historic development of the Statement of m angiotensin converting enzymetary score Standards (FAS 157) and its jar on sporting cheer agate line relationship.This is followed by the methodology hireed in the research. Next, he reviews the literature on major roll in the hays in change surface tump overedly comfort news report and fiscal report, and personates his findings from the topic. The researcher ends the paper with recommendations to enhance the ph thisisfulness of fun fine time think of com vesteing and draws implications for pecuniary reporting and intentrs of monetary storys.Keywords: median(a) Value, Measurement, Financial Instruments, Market 1. INTRODUCTION In December of two hundred1, chronicle standard-setters around the world accomplish a character paper (Financial instruments and similar items) that proposes rudimentary adjustments to the way pecuniary instruments ar report in the accounts of companies.In particular, the paper proposes, entomb alia, that all monetary instruments should be pass rulingd at ch building appraise. The intrusting welkin has long grappled that such(prenominal) an forebode is non seize for banks and that, to the extent that thither be weaknesses in the way that banks currently account for their monetary instruments, those ills atomic number 18 better addressed through incremental, than of import , multifariousness (Ebling, 2001).The Financial Instruments Joint Working fellowship of standard setters (JWP) main proposal atomic number 18 that: (a) all types of entity should peak all their monetary instruments at comme il faut obedience, and should to a lower placestand all changes in those modal(a) de barrierine with aside delay in the profit and loss account; (b) the clear harbor of an instrument should be its estimated switch over pass by outlay; (c) no demurions should be dedicate for pecuniary instruments utilise in hedgerow arrangements (i. e. thither should be no hedge method of news report for pecuniary instruments( Bies, 2005)).In new(prenominal) words, a pecuniary summation for which an spry commercializedize exists should be carried in the brace flat solid at its commercialize bid price and changes in that bid price should be recognized immediately in the profit and loss account. This would be the eluding regardless of the priming why the instrument is cosmos held â€for ex vast, ev en if it is being held as a hedging instrument or being held until it maturesâ€and regardless of the occasion or character of the martplace price change involved (Ebling, 2001). FAS 157 †Statement of Financial Accounting Standards no(prenominal) 57, exquisite Value Measurementsâ€defines good place and establishes a frame work for metre bonny cheer in primarily reliable accountancy principles (GAAP). magical spell previous pronouncements involving paygrade foc wasting diseased on what to measure at comme il faut prize, FAS 157†field of studyd by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) on September 15, 2006â€foc delectations on how to measure bewitching lever (Sinnett, 2007). What is charming nurture? FAS 157 be quite prescriptive, defining it as the price that would be received to take an plus or paid to transfer a pecuniary obligation in an natty transaction betwixt participants at the measurement dates (Chambers, 2008).FAS 157 put in place a framework for saneish lever measurement and revealing. Perhaps the virtually meaning(a) feature in FAS 157 is the considerment to set out pecuniary educations in triple levels that describe the reli adequateness of the inputs utilise to establish ordinary entertain. Fitch describes it as the amusement park hold dear hierarchy. So direct 1 is quite straightforward, as the price used ar identical to the input and discovered in or sothing homogeneous a public exchange. It gets quite complicated for train 2 summations and liabilities, because the prices used might be inferred from an exp one(a)nt or a nonher security with similar attri scarcelyes to the one being metrical.Fair rate measurement in Level 3 summations atomic number 18 purely model-driven, consisting of unperceivable inputs, and get to understandably swollen as breadets watch crowing increasingly il lucid and dis tellly (Chambers, 2008). For umteen years, users of pecuniary p edagogys save sought germane(predicate) and timely selective learning near monetary instruments and off-balance sheet items and activities. It is conceptualise that equitable pry measurements and recognition of these range in the monetary contestations, along with adequate disclosures, depart generate essential reading to evaluate properly an go-ahead’s exposures to monetary take a chances, as strong as rewards ( unidentified, 2002). 2 © revolve roughly for Promoting Ideas, the States www. ijbssnet. com This is because plum survey reporting studys the scotchal existentity by showing the excitability natural in the judge of fiscal instruments given changes in food securities industryplaceplace conditions and operations of the enterprise. Historic constitute- ground method of accounting smoothes these gear ups, thus, obscuring this volatility and dissembleing the economic impact of various positions held in fiscal instruments (Anonymous , 2007). 2. METHODOLOGY This paper relies on the literature review of current applicable articles focvictimization on accounting for unobjectionable honor.Except where a source was compulsory specifically for its perspective on broad issues relating to fresh protect accounting, the author screened by ? delightful observe accounting? and by numerous variants of samarawords, focusing specifically on reasonable value accounting and pecuniary reporting in firms. Source papers acknowledge refereed research studies, empirical reports, and articles from professional journals. Since the literature relating to beautiful value accounting is voluminous, the author used nearly(prenominal) finale rules in choosing articles.First, because the accounting profession is ever-changing fast in today’s environment, peculiarly for monetary instruments, the author used mostly sources published 2002-2010, except where papers were needed specifically for their historic perspectives . Second, given the author’s aim to come through a practical understanding of the main issues in picturesque value accounting, he included, in order of priority: refereed empirical research papers, reports, and opposite applicable literature on current firms’ upright value reporting usages.To get nigh perspective on the current state of dependable value accounting, the author begins with a literature review of some of the most chief(prenominal) issues relating to the concept. 3. LITERATURE REVIEW 3. 1. Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (FAS 157) FAS 157 defines passably value as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a financial obligation in an orderly transaction in the midst of food mart participants at the measurement date. This definition abandons a longstanding exercising of using the transaction price for an asset or obligation as its initial amusement park(a) value.In other words, dependable value giv e no long-dated be ground on what you pay for something; it go away now be base on what you ignore sell it for, also known as its ? exit price.? Just as classical, this definition emphasizes that middling value is foodstuff found†requiring the consideration of what other mart participants might pay for somethingâ€and is no longer entityspecific. evaluation force now be determined by a skeptical, rather than optimistic, buyer. In turn, the level of entropy available to measure decorous value allow for determine how the valuation of an asset or liability is determined.Common valuation techniques identified by FAS 157 ar the market approach, income approach and/or embody approach. These models require inputs that reflect assumptions that market participants would use for pricing an asset or liability. Observable inputs would be based on market data obtained from self-directed sources, such as line of descent exchange prices. Meanwhile, in the absence of an lively market for an asset or liability, unobservable inputs reflect the reporting entity’s own assumptions.The standard provides a unobjectionable value hierarchy that gives highest priority to quoted prices in restless markets ( delimit as level 1) and lowest priority to unobservable inputs (level 3) (Sinnett, 2007). 3. 2. Mark to Market Mark-to-market accounting refers to the accounting standards of assignment a value to a position held in a financial instrument based on the current fair market price, rather than its pilot burner approach or book value, for the instrument or similar instruments. Fair value has been part of U. S. generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) since the early 1990s.Investors demand the use of fair value when estimating the value of assets and liabilities. This has been influenced by investors’ proneness for a to a greater extent realistic appraisal of an brass’s or a confederacy’s current financial position. Mar k to market is a measure of the fair value of accounts that finish change over time, such as assets and liabilities. For example, financial instruments traded on a incomings exchange, such as commodity contracts, argon marked to market on a day-by-day basis at the market ending (Metzger, 2010). When banks mark to market, they follow deuce clapperclaws.First, they estimate the net accomplishable value of their portfolio of asset-backed securities. This involves discounting the coin unravels of these assets. Then under fair value accounting, they piss to take a haircut on these values that takes into account the price at which they could sell the assets. When the market is non functioning, of course, this haircut is very(prenominal) large. This is important because it suggests that the long decline in the value of bank assets is not due to a decline that has originally occurred†notwithstanding rather to the market’s judgment most the assay of resale by a pur chaser.It is this take a chances thatâ€when combined with fair value accountingâ€has forced the write- rarifys in bank assets (Wallison, 2009). 3. 3. Relevance 13 International ledger of moving in and Social Science Vol. 2 No. 20; November 2011 The debate of fair value accounting meatyly revolves around the issues of relevance and dependableness. Before discussing the issues of relevance of fair value, the author looks briefly at how fair value and relevance are generally defined.Fair value is defined in the FASB’s Preliminary View documents as an estimate of the price an entity would accomplished if it has sold an asset or paid if it had been relieved of a liability on the reporting date in an arm’s â€length exchange motivated by normal business consideration. Relevance is defined in the glossary of the FASB Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 2 as the capacity of cultivation to make a ine superior in a decision by helping users to form soothsayings most the issuances of past, present, and incoming events or to confirm or correct medical prognosis (Poon, 2004). 3. 4.Reliability and Measurements Reliability is defined in the glossary to the FASB Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 2 as the quality of information that assures that information is reasonably unleash from error and bias and faith generousy represented what it purports to represent. Fair value as an estimate of exit value under normal market condition is intimately defined and noncontroversial when in that location are well-established liquid markets. What if there is no liquid market? This is the location in which an estimation of fair value go forth inevitably involve prediction of future cash flows and s preference of appropriate discount place.These estimates depend on centering’s assumptions and measurement error. This has the potential to mask deliberate miscalculation and manipulation of the numbers. Both the FASB and the JWG agnise that some profound measurement issues essential be resolved and they are working on growing more guidance regarding estimating fair value and establishing appropriate controls. However, it should be noted that the use of estimate is an essential part of preparation of financial statements, e. g. the ubiquitous use of estimates in pension accounting (Poon, 2004).If markets were liquid and rank(a) for all assets and liabilities, fair value accounting clear would be undeviating information helpful in the decision-making process. However, because more another(prenominal) assets and liabilities do not shake off an restless market, the inputs and methods for estimating their fair value are more intrinsic and, therefore, the valuations less accredited (Bies, 2005). 3. 5. Verification As the compartmentalisation and complexity of financial instruments emergences, so does the need for independent verification of fair value estimates.However, verification of va luations that are not based on observable market prices is very challenging. Many of the values allow be on inputs and methods selected by trouble. Estimates based on these judgments exit likely be difficult to verify. Both auditors and users of financial statements, including credit portfolio managers, exit need to place greater emphasis on understanding how assets and liabilities are measured and how reliable these valuations are when making decision based on them (Bies, 2005). 3. 6.Disclosure The FASB states that the proposed update would change the wording used to describe the principles and requirements in U. S. GAAP for measuring fair value and for disclosing information closely fair value measurements. Specifically, the proposed update would include amendments to (a) clarify FASB intent roughly fair value application of active fair value measurement and disclosure requirements, and (b) change a particular principle or requirement for measuring fair value or disclosing information closely fair value measurements (Elifoglu et al. 2010). 3. 7.Financial Instruments Financial instruments versus nonfinancial instrumentsâ€many fascinate fundamental inconsistency between measuring financial instruments at fair value and nonfinancial items largely on historic cost basis. Standard-setters recognize that whenever a boundary is drawn between financial statement items with different measurement specifys some inconsistencies and complexities very more than results. It is repugnd that there is economic logic in plan a line between financial instruments and nonfinancial items, and more so than drawing a line including some inancial instruments but not others (Hague, 2002). Conceptually, the periodic returns on financial instruments crumb be separated into three lucks with distinct sustainability or authenticty. The graduation exercise two componentsâ€amortized cost touch on and the difference between fair value lodge in group and amortized cost interest-sum to fair value interest. It is useful to distinguish these two components of fair value interest because amortized cost interest is both sustainable and authoritative, whereas the difference between fair value interest and amortized cost interest is sustainable but groping.The difference between fair value interest and amortized cost interest is sustainable because un anticipate changes in interest rank and the resulting un anticipate changes in fair values modify fair value interest calculations throughout the stay lives of financial instruments. 14 © Centre for Promoting Ideas, USA www. ijbssnet. com For example, an un pass judgment gain on a financial asset due to a subside in interest rates in the current period reduces expected fair value interest revenue on the asset throughout its remaining life.This third component of the periodic returns to financial instruments is the unexpected change in their fair values during the period. Unexpected changes in t he fair values of financial instruments are both unsustainable and un current (Ryan & et, al. , 2002). 3. 8. Financial Reporting The reporting of financial assets and liabilities is an election on a contract-by-contract basis and not mandatory. Therefore, not all instruments will necessarily be describe at fair value.In order to distinguish instruments that are describe at fair value from those that employ some other measurement, firms will earn one of two reporting options on the statement of financial position. A firm may display the two classifications, fair-value and non-fairvalue carrying amounts, as separate line items on the statement of financial position. The second option for reporting is parenthical disclosure where the firm presents the aggregate of the two classifications and discloses the amount of the fair value parenthically (Schneider & McCarthy, 2007). . 9. Critics of Fair Value Critics argue that fair value accounting has created a false short visib ility in the case of pension support and hastened the demise of defined benefit schemes. More generally, critics argue that the financial crisis demonstrates the pro-cyclicality of fair values when accounting is tightly coupled to prudential regulatory systems, and the unreliability of print to model in less than liquid asset markets, especially for assets which are being held for the long term (Power, 2010).They also add that the impact of fair value accounting (FVA) is likely to be more sumptuary lending policies, and more demanding loan covenants, than are obligatory for sound take chances wariness, together with pricing which will be higher than is economically necessary (Allatt, 2001). Moreover, several(prenominal) commentators remarked on the fictional and imaginary nature of fair value and bemoaned their subjectivity and potential for manipulation and bias.Regardless of whether these criticisms have substance, it is also the case that if enough people turn over in fict ions, then they spate play a graphic symbol in constituting markets (Power, 2010). Many are loose with historic cost/realization accounting on the grounds that it is familiar and provide a more stable basis for prediction of future accounting than fair values. They argue that fair value based meshing cannot be predicted in the same way because of the make of uncertain future events and see this as a significant drawback in being able to prepare budgets, forecasts, etc. nd to manage analysts’ expectations (Hague, 2002). Nevertheless, many critics of the subjectivity of fair value miss the real exhibit. The very idea of reliability is being reconstruct in front of their eyes by shift the focus from transactions to economic valuation methods, and by giving these methods a firmer institutional footing. Deep down the fair value debate seems to hinge on fundamentally different conceptions of the basis for reliability in accounting, making it less of a technical fight and mo re of the politics of acceptability (Power, 2010). . 10. Proponents of Fair Value Few will interrogatory the relevance of information based on market prices as historic cost information is based on market prices at which assets were initially acquired and liabilities were initially incurred whereas fair value are based on current market prices. Fair value reflects the effects of changes in market conditions and changes in fair value reflect the effect of changes in market conditions when they take place. In contrast, historical ost information reflects only the effects of conditions that existed when the transaction took place, and the effects of price changes are reflected only when they are realized. As fair value incorporate current information about current market conditions and expectations, they are expected to provide a superior basis for prediction than outdated cost figures can since these outdated cost figures reflect an outdated market conditions and expectations (Poon, 2004).Proponents of fair value in accounting often appeal to notions of state things as they are and of improving transparency. They point to areas such as pension accounting or the savings and loans industry in North America where fair values would have made problems (deficits, poor execute loans) visible much earlier, thereby enabling restorative action. An often heard trope is that one should not shoot the messenger of poor asset quality (Ebling, 2001). 4. FINDINGS bandage there is a large number of assets and liabilities account or disclosed in financial statements, the percentage of these items and the dollar impact on earnings may not have been exorbitant for most companies, except for financial institutions. 15 International Journal of Business and Social Science Vol. 2 No. 20; November 2011 In 2008, only 27% of the total assets of the S&P 500 companies that had adopted FAS 157 were actually reported at fair value (Zion et al. , 2009). While this represents about $6. 6 trillion in assets, it is still a relatively small percentage of the assets.Because of the mixed attribute model used in U. S. Generally authoritative Accounting Principles (GAAP), some assets are measured using fair value while othersâ€even very similar assets are measured at cost, or amortized cost, or by some other measure. The nature of the assets held by these companies determined, to a large extent, their exposure to risk in the credit crisis. Companies in the financial sector had a much larger number of fair valued assets (39%) then did, for instance, companies in consumer staples (2%).Even inwardly the financial sector, investment banks and insurance companies, most of whose assets are reported at fair value, were impacted more than commercial banks, whose largest assets is generally loans, which are not reported at fair value (Casabona & Shoaf, 2010). In addition, there is ample empirical evidence to support the relevance of fair value information of financial i nstruments. For example, Barth (2006) finds that fair valuation of investment securities influences the share price indicating that it provides extra information to investors.Additional discussion of findings of research on accounting for fair value of financial instruments can be build in FASC 1998 study (Poon, 2004). 5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION While most people agree that fair values are the most relevant measure for financial assets and liabilities that an entity actively trades, some (most notably, those in the banking industry) argue that historical cost is the more appropriate measure if centering intends to admiration an asset or to owe a liability until maturity.The rationale for accounting on a historical cost basis is that it better reflects the economic substance of the transactions and the actual cash flow over time. They argue that fair value information, on the other hand, would reflect the effects of transactions and events in which the entity would not participate and thus is often irrelevant. The question here is whether direction’s decision to hold assets or to continue to owe liabilities in lighten up of changed market condition is relevant in evaluating the entity’s financial position and performance (Poon, 2004). slightly also argue that the outcome of fair value accounting on entity’s financial liabilities is counterintuitive if its credit risks changes. The fair value of a financial liability will decrease when the issuing entity’s credit risk deteriorates because the interest rate on the initial issue date would now be lower than what it would be if the liability was issued today. Conversely, if an entity’s credit rating improves, an increase in the fair value of its financial liability will result.However, as justifyed in Barth and Landsman (1995), changes in the credit rating represent wealth transfers between creditors and stockholders. It is not counterintuitive to see a decrease (an increase ) in the value of a financial liability when there is a wealth transfer from creditor (stockholders) to stockholders (creditors) fit to the deterioration (improvement) of the credit rating of the issuing entity. Therefore, the outcome of fair value accounting is not quickly counterintuitive.But as illustrated in Lipe (2002), financial statement users must be better enlightend about the impact of fair value accounting on financial liabilities. In particular, a decrease (an increase) in the fair value of financial liabilities should not be understand as positive (negative) if it is due to deteriorating (improving) credit quality. In addition, loan covenants have to be revised and financial ratios involving financial liabilities have to be analyzed then (Lipe, 2002).Still another argument against fair value accounting is the induced volatility of earnings if changes in fair values are reported in earnings. Some believe that this volatility of earnings may not correlate to manageme nt’s performance and that this would make it more difficult for users to predict future performance. First, this is not a reliability issue since fair values can be reliably measured but still vary a great dole out from one period to another.Second, the requirement of fair value reporting does not have to go hand in hand with the requirement of recognizing changes in fair values in reporting earnings (Poon, 2004). For this reason changes in fair value should be separately reported based on causes such as the passage of time, changes in market conditions, changes in the entity’s financial health, changes in estimate, and changes in valuation techniques.Requiring fair value information as supplemental disclosures quite of financial statement recognition also addresses some of the concerns (e. g. , volatility of reported assets, liabilities, and earnings) of the opponents of fair value accounting. In addition, this will allow financial statement users to break up on t heir own how much reliance they will put on and how to use fair value information (Poon, 2004).FSP FAS 175-4 provides application guidance to assess whether the muckle and level of activity for asset or liability have significantly decreased when compared with normal market conditions. However, this assessment should consider whether there are factors present that render that the market for the asset is not active at the measurement date, such as : (a) there are few recent transactions based on volume and level of activity in the market, (b) price quotations are not based on current information , 16 © Centre for Promoting Ideas, USA www. ijbssnet. com c) price quotations vary significantly either over time or among market makers , (d) there is a significant increase in implied liquidity risk premiums, yields, or performance indicators (such as delinquency rates or loss severities) (e) There is a significant decline or absence of a market for new issuances (Casabona & Shoaf , 2010). Research by Federal nurse staff shows that fair value estimates for bank loan can vary greatly, depending on the valuation inputs and methodology used. For example, observed market rates for corporate bonds and syndicated loans with lower-rated categories have varied by much as 200 to 500 basis points.Such wide ranges occur even in the case of senior bonds and loans when obligors are matched. Moreover, the FASB statement on the proposed fair value standards that reliability can be significantly enhanced if market inputs are used in valuation. However, because management uses significant judgment in selecting market inputs when market prices are not available, reliability will continue to be an issue (Bies, 2005) 6. RECOMMENDATIONS In order to provide more relevant information to financial statement users, fair value information should be reported for all financial assets and liabilities.Given that there are still some important conceptual and practical issues relating to t he reliable determination of fair value, it is better to first require full fair value disclosures before contemplating a shift to full fair value recognition in financial statements. That would enable investors, creditor, preparer, auditors, and regulators to learn from experience. When the issues relating to the reliable determination of fair values are resolved, they will be ready(a) for full fair value recognition in financial statements (Poon, 2004).The author concords with the SEC recommendations, which are expected to impact the FASB’s future activities, including (a) improve fair value accounting standards (b) improve the application of existing fair value requirements (c) readdress the accounting for financial asset impairment s (d) establish formal measures to address the operation of existing accounting standards in practice (e) implement further guidance to foster the use of sound judgment of practitioners (f) address the need to simplify the accounting for inves tments in financial asset (Casabona & Shoaf, 2010).The first priority seems to be to work in close co-operation with users and preparers of financial statements to further consider the practicality of the proposals and to demonstrate or refute the relative merits of fair value and historic cost based reporting of financial statements for users’ abstract purposes. Such work should involve rigorous interrogation to consider how fair value information would be used in decision models, as well as to stimulate the preparation of fair value information to understand better the extent of many of the practical concerns (Hague, 2002).Second, implementation of the proposals would provide more useful, relevant and transparent information about an enterprise’s use of financial instruments than is available today. The full benefits, however, will only be understood with careful study and education about how to use the new information. A somewhat different mindset and base of expertise (from that appropriate to traditional recognition and historical cost-based accounting for financial instruments) is also necessary. This includes integrating knowledge of certain finance and capital-markets concepts and practices with financial accounting objectives and concepts (Hague, 2001).Third, financial instruments should be grouped and displayed on the balance sheet based on the underlying characteristics of the instruments, such as compulsory rights to receive or obligations to deliver, and by major classes within these groups. Detailed, descriptive information about the nature and price of these financial instruments, as well as management’s policies pertaining to them, should be disclosed in the notes to the financial statements in a manner conformable with the balance sheet (Anonymous, 2002). Fourth, fair values reflect point estimates and by themselves do not result in transparent financial statements.Hence, supernumerary disclosures are necessary to bring meaning to these fair value estimates. FASB’s proposal take a first step toward enhancing fair value disclosures related to the reliability of fair value estimates. Additional types of disclosures should be considered to give users of financial statements a better understanding of the relative reliability of fair value estimates. These disclosures might include key drivers affecting valuations, fairvalue-range estimates, and confidence level (Yonetani & Katsuo, 1998). Finally, another important disclosure consideration relates to changes in fair value amounts.For example, changes in fair value of securities portfolio can overdress from movements in interest rates, foreign-currency rates, and credit quality, as well as purchases and sales from the portfolio. For users to understand fair value estimates, they must be given adequate disclosures about what factors caused the changes in fair value (Bies, 2005). 7. IMPLICATIONS FOR FINANCIAL coverage AND MANAGERIAL DECISION-MAKING Several implications are drawn from this paper. 17 International Journal of Business and Social Science Vol. 2 No. 20; November 2011First, standard-setters and regulators would be call for to provide more specific guidance on how to determine fair value for financial statements. Perhaps, they can list some common valuation techniques and indicate their appropriateness in various circumstances. Disclosure requirements would include disclosure of fair value of all financial instruments along with method adopted to determine fair values, any significant assumptions used in their estimation, some indications of the sensitivity of the estimated fair value to these assumptions, and discussion of risk exposure and issues associated with the estimation of fair value (Poon, 2004).Second, the role of external financial reporting is to portray an enterprise as if seen through the eyes of managementâ€that is, that financial reporting should be consistent with internal manag ement practices. It is, evidently, desirable that there be as much compatibility between the two as possible. However, it is difficult to see how accounting that is driven by the manner in which an enterprise chooses to manage its financial instruments and risks can provide information to financial statement users that are consistent and comparable between enterprises (Hague, 2002).Third, the objectives of financial analysis are to discern and assess the effects to an enterprise’s performance and financial condition, including those that result from its risk management policies and decisions that involve financial instruments. In addition, financial statement users want to assess how well an enterprise hard-hittingly applies these policies in managing the risks of the enterprise. Therefore accounting and disclosure requirements related to financial instruments must be designed to explain (a) risks inherent in a given business (b) hedging strategies employed and (c) outcome (s) of such hedging activities.In other words, financial and nonfinancial disclosures should provide sufficient information for users of this information to discern and answer question, such as these: (a) what are management’s policies and procedures for using certain financial instruments? (b) How extensively does the enterprise use these financial instruments as part of its risk management? (c) What are the timing and the magnitude of the effects of the instruments on fair values in the balance sheet and changes in these values reflected in the income statement? d) How effective, or ineffective, are the position in these financial instruments as hedges in managing the risk exposure of the enterprise? And (e) what portion of the gains and losses reported in the balance sheet and income statement is realized and unrealized? (Anonymous, 2002). Fourth, the fact that management use significant judgment in the valuation process, particularly for level 3 estimates, add to the co ncern about reliability. Management bias, whether intentional or unintentional, may result in inappropriate fair value measurements and misstatements of earnings and equity capital.This was the case in the overvaluation of certain residual trenches in securitizations in recent years, when there was no active market for these assets. Significant write-downs of enlarged asset valuations have resulted in the failure of a number of finance companies and depository institutions. Similar problems have occurred due to overvaluations in nonbank trading portfolios that resulted in overstatements of income and equity. The opening move of management bias exists today. There continue to be new stories about charges of earnings manipulation, even under the historical cost accounting framework.It is believe that, without reliable fair value estimates, the potential for misstatements in financial statements prepared using fair value measurements will be even greater (Bies, 2005). Fifth, three fu ndamental goals of accounting that are likely to have influenced the select of fair value accounting for all financial firms. One of these objectives is to minimize what is called management bias. Management has an obvious incentive to inflate the value of a company’s assets, and many ways to do it. scaling a company’s assets to market is an effective way of taking his element of financial statement manipulation out of management’s manpower (Wallison, 2009). Finally, the option to use fair value for certain assets and liabilities will provide more relevant information to the users of financial statements. However, since the fair value usage can be elected for some financial assets and financial liabilities and avoided for others, there is a loss of consistency in the financial statements between entities and even within a single entity. Also the new standard imposes additional disclosure requirements (Schneider & McCarthy, 2007). 8. CONCLUDING REMARKSCur rent methods of accounting for financial instruments have been of concern to accounting standard-setters around the world for some time now. These concerns about financial instruments start from the contemplation that markets now exists for either the instruments themselves or the various financial risks that arise from the instruments, and the availability of those markets enables entities to actively manage the financial risks and, thereby, to realize some or all of the market value of their financial instruments with ease. (Ebling, 2001). 18 © Centre for Promoting Ideas, USA www. ijbssnet. comIt has been argued that different conceptions of what is for an accounting estimate to be reliable underlie the fair value debate as it has taken shape in the last decade. The wrangle of subjectivity and objectivity is unhelpful in characterizing what is at stake; it is more useful to focus on the question of how certain valuation technologies do or don’t become institutionally a ccepted as producing facts (Power, 2010). However, the shift in accounting principles will not come without some additional effort by all capital market participants, including preparers, auditors, regulators, and users of this information.It is realized that accounting and reporting based on fair value principles, in comparison with historical cost-based principles, require more extensive and detailed analysis of the methods and assumptions used to determine values recognized in the financial statements. This in turn, will require market participants to plan the current financial reporting model and to educate themselves in the application of these new principles. Nonetheless, transparency of the true up economic consequences, i. e. isks and rewards, resulting from the use of financial instruments justifies the movement to a fair value based model for financial reporting (Anonymous, 2002). Certainly, mark-to-market reporting has its drawbacks, especially for derivatives. First, fair value based on market prices can be difficult to determine for complex and lightly traded instruments. These types of derivatives are the level 3 type mentioned above. These derivatives are unremarkably measured using a mark-to-model process, which can be arbitrary at best and fraudulent at worst.Next, there is the theoretical issue, as banks successfully argued, as to whether market price does indeed represent fair value. Also, the relevance of market prices can be challenged with respect to intent. Some observers challenge the relevance of market prices because they believe that, if government officials do not intend to trade derivatives but rather hold them to maturity, as is ordinarily the case with derivatives used for hedging, then the time and depreciate of determining fair value may not be worthwhile.Still, using fair value accounting is proper for derivative reporting because it enhances the following qualities or objectives of financial measurement and reporting: a ccountability, transparency, consistency, inter-period equity, and risk management (Metzger, 2010). REFERENCES Allatt, G. (2001). Fair value accounting: Examining the consequences. Balance Sheet, 9, 22-26. Anonymous (2007). Statement of financial accounting standards No. 159: The fair value option for financial assets and financial liabilities. Journal of Accountancy, 203, 96-101. Anonymous (2002). Financial instruments: Fair values and disclosure.Balance Sheet, 10, 12-20. Bath, M. (2006). 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(1998). Fair value accounting and regulatory capital requirements. Economic insurance policy Review, 4, 33-44. Zion, D. , Varshney, A. & Cornett, C. ( June, 2009). Focusing on fair value. Credit Suisse impartiality Research, 4, 18-20. 19 Copyright of International Journal of Business & Social Science is the property of Centre for Promoting Ideas and its theme may not be copied or emailed to triple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holders bring written permission. Ho wever, users may print, download, or email articles for private use.\r\n'